The Angry Red Planet—Terraforming MarsOne evening in 1877, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schlaparelli was exploring the heavens with his reflector telescope. Giovanni was known for his research on binary stars, but on this particular night his telescope was focused on Mars. As he studied the fuzzy image in the eyepiece, he noticed that some areas on the planet’s surface were darker than others. He drew maps of the features he observed, and he gave names to those light and dark areas that he speculated were oceans and continents.
Anyone on Earth with a large enough telescope can see those same features Giovanni mapped and named.
But on his maps, he recorded something else, something that you won’t see. He saw a network of dark, straight lines crisscrossing a large area along the Red Planet’s equatorial region.
Giovanni thought the features resembled channels, and he named them ‘canali’, Italian for channels. It must be noted that he never suggested they were anything other than naturally-formed features.
As the news of his discovery spread to America, the name ‘canali’ was widely misinterpreted in English as ‘canals,’ and a mystery was born.
Unlike channels, which can be formed by any number of normal geological processes, canals do not occur naturally, so obviously someone, or something, had to make them.
American astronomer Percival Lowell, one of Giovanni’s contemporaries, spent his life trying to prove the existence of life on Mars. This discovery of canals was a big boost for his theories, and he actively promoted the idea of intelligent beings inhabiting Mars. It was an exciting time for astronomers, and science in general, as the canals and the mystery of their creation became famous.
Who built the canals? Why? How? When? Are the lifeforms that built them still there? Or is it possible that 2 million years ago we all just left the dying Red Planet and moved to Earth?
Most of those questions would be addressed by the countless stories that ensued in the years that followed, as authors tried to cash in on the popularity of the mystery. Those stories of Martian civilizations—our visits there and their visits here, we attacking them and they attacking us—persist nearly 150 years later.
It doesn’t really matter that most other astronomers have never seen any of those dark lines at all. There’s no story there.
Today we know there are no canals or channels on Mars. There are currently no oceans or continents.
The ‘canali’ were largely dismissed by the scientific community as an optical illusion, and no one really knows what Giovanni actually saw. Modern telescopes and crystal-clear photography from visiting space probes reveal no hint of the existence of those features.
But the seed had been planted, and even today, the mystique is as seductive as ever.
Colonizing Mars has been the stuff of science fiction for many decades. Making it a reality has been the dream of scientists for just as long. What is the allure?
There are many reasons people want to travel to Mars and establish colonies there. Simple curiosity is a compelling human trait. Does life exist on Mars? Was there ever life on Mars? What can Mars tell us about the origin of the solar system? The universe? Life itself?
The Red Planet may not provide us with any answers to these questions, but there certainly could be a treasure trove of enticing new clues.
A scientific research colony established on Mars could also be used as a re-supply stop-over for our travels further out into the solar system, and beyond. Some scientists see Mars as a possible life raft to use when our own planet becomes unlivable.
How practical is the idea of sending humans to Mars to live and work for extended periods?
Establishing and maintaining even a small outpost on Mars would be vastly expensive. We have a permanent outpost in Earth orbit right now that is incredibly difficult to maintain. Food, oxygen, water—everything the occupants need to survive and do their work has to be hauled into orbit on a regular basis.
That outpost, the International Space Station, has been continuously occupied by up to 6 crew members for over 16 years, as of 2016. It can be a challenge to keep it supplied, and it is only 250 miles away. That short distance would be only a 4-hour drive on Earth. Imagine trying to maintain a settlement that is 40 million miles away. And that is at Mars’ closest approach. At its greatest distance from Earth, Mars is over 250 million miles away.
Making it worse, those Earth-to-Mars distances are straight-line measurements. The circuitous route necessary to get a spacecraft to Mars would be well over 200 million miles, one way, and could take more than six months.
Even the short trip up to the space station (orbiting at 250 miles altitude) can be over 100,000 miles.
As the population of our small Martian outpost grows, and it becomes a real colony, the needs rise dramatically. More people do more work, but they also consume more resources. That requires more supplies to be transported, and it’s such a long, long distance to haul them.
In today’s dollars, the Apollo program in the 1960s and 1970s cost about 100 billion dollars. That paid for research and development, and for a few short trips to the moon and back. Establishing and maintaining a thriving, working colony on Mars would cost many trillions of dollars.
Recent cost studies estimate that transporting building materials to Mars would cost over 2 million dollars per brick. Not that they would be sending bricks to Mars, but it does provide some insight into the costs involved in transporting supplies.
While there are potential rewards, the obstacles are many, and they are huge. The enormous financial burden is just one consideration. There are many things standing firmly in the way of making Mars a home.
Mars today is a cold, ‘dead’ planet, but a few billion years ago, in its youth, it was geologically active.The early Mars had residual internal heat from its creation. It had volcanoes and a much denser atmosphere. It was much warmer, and there is evidence that it had liquid water. That sounds a lot like the early Earth.
What happened?
At less than half the size of the earth, Mars is a puny planet. In addition, both of its moons are too tiny to provide any gravitational tidal effect. Our own large moon has a powerful pull on Earth as it orbits us. This constant tugging is responsible for the ocean’s tides, but it also tugs on the land masses, and it produces enough friction deep inside our planet to keep the interior hot and molten.
That molten iron interior is kept in motion by the earth’s rotation as well as the moon’s gravity, and that motion creates an electrical current, which in turn creates Earth’s massive magnetic field.
Beginning 3 to 4 billion years ago, the still-young Mars began to lose its baby heat, and as its own molten metal core cooled, it lost its magnetic field. Without that protection, the solar wind eventually stripped away most of its atmosphere, along with its ability to retain any heat.
In its current state, Mars is inhospitable to life as we know it. We don’t know if it ever supported life, but virtually none of our basic life-support requirements exist there now, at least in the amounts necessary to allow us to survive on that barren world.
Keep in mind, we always refer to life ‘as we know it.’ There is always the possibility life exists in a form we are not familiar with, a form that could thrive in those conditions that are hostile to life from Earth.
Today, the warmest it ever gets on Mars is about 70° F. That’s at noon, in the summer, on the equator. That blistering heat doesn’t last long. Later that same night, the temperature plummets to minus 125° F. In most places, most of the time, it is much, much colder. Any human inhabitants would need a constant, reliable heat source to survive. That requires energy.
For thousands of years on Earth, fire was about our only source of usable, on-demand energy. But the fuel for that fire was only available because of Earth’s long history of abundant plant life. On Mars, there is no firewood, and no fossil fuels like coal or oil. There is not enough oxygen for combustion anyway.
Technology to supply energy would need to be developed on Earth, and then transported to Mars.
Solar panel arrays coupled with storage batteries are among the suggested options for supplying energy. That is the primary power source for many satellites and space probes. The International Space Station gets 100% of its electrical power from solar panels. It takes over a half acre of panels to generate the 100 kilowatts it needs. That same power could supply about 40 homes on Earth.
For the same reason it is unable to support combustion, Mars’ thin atmosphere will not sustain human life. The density of its atmosphere is less than one percent of Earth’s. If you travel up to about 25 miles altitude above Earth, the air is about as thin as it is on Mars. Passenger planes operate up to only about 6 or 7 miles high—Mt. Everest is about 5½ miles—and even at that altitude, there isn’t enough oxygen to keep us alive.
Making it worse, the extremely thin air on Mars is 95% carbon dioxide, and the oxygen content is only about one-tenth of one percent. By contrast, Earth’s atmosphere is 20% oxygen, and there is a much larger volume of that atmosphere.Colonists would need an abundant supply of breathable oxygen. It is hoped that there is oxygen available on Mars’ surface in forms we can access. Until scientists could figure out where it is and develop the technology to extract it, they would have to bring all their own oxygen from home.
If they don’t want to live in their space suits, colonists would need permanent, pressurized structures to live and work in.
Those structures would need to be constructed in a way that provides a shield from the relentless, deadly bombardment of radiation from the sun that would quickly kill the vulnerable settlers. All of us on Earth are protected from that same radiation by our abundant atmosphere and our powerful magnetic field.
Martian colonists would need lots of water. Scientists say there is some water there, but they don’t know how much. They don’t know how to access it. They don’t know if it is drinkable. It could be too salty, or it could be contaminated by many other more hazardous impurities.
We already know about the 2-million-dollar price tag to take a brick to Mars. A quart of water is about the same size and weight of that brick. That’s 4 million dollars per day per person to have water delivered. And that’s just enough for drinking. Water will be needed for many things. Maybe there’s a bulk discount.
Our colonists will be working hard, and they will get very hungry. Scientists don’t know if anything can grow on Mars. Until we get there and find out, all food would need to be transported from Earth. It is a possibility that plants can be grown inside the structures, so those plants will need lots of water, too. And sunlight for heat and photosynthesis. Mars gets about half as much sunlight as Earth, so growing crops would be challenging.
Half as much sunlight reaching the planet also means twice as many solar panels will be needed to generate the same power.
Living on Mars wouldn’t be much different from living in the International Space Station. However, because of the enormous distance, there would have to be a steady, dependable fleet of supply ships constantly in space on the 6-month journey—one way—to and from the Martian colony.
It would be a daunting undertaking, financially and logistically. And it would take a long, long time to construct an artificial habitat capable of sustaining a large colony.
But what if we could instead get Mars itself to provide everything humans need to live? What if we could make the planet itself more hospitable to human life?
Enter terraforming. We simply make the Martian environment more Earthlike. We warm it up, add oxygen and water, and provide a radiation shield. Then all we need are plants and animals. There are many theories and proposals about how to accomplish this significant transformation.
Many scientists are serious about exploring the possibility of turning Mars into another Earth, but remember: it’s still just science fiction.
It’s a grand experiment, but let’s entertain the notion anyway just to see what it would take.
Here is our starting point: Mars is a big, cold rock. There is virtually no atmosphere; no oxygen; no water; no heat; no food; no fuel; constant deadly radiation; it is very, very far away.
The big hurdle now becomes the change in scale and scope of our project, from providing the survival requirements to just a few people in a bubble, to providing those requirements to the entire planet. Our project just went from extremely daunting to almost certainly impossible.
The principle is to make relatively ‘small’ changes that will be not only self-sustaining, but will be self-proliferating. We need Mars to do most of the work.
One of the first things to overcome in that hostile environment is the bitter cold. We need to heat up the entire planet rather than just our tiny living quarters. Mars is a huge chunk of rock, even at a fraction the size of the earth. How do you heat an entire planet?
Naturally, there is no shortage of theories.
One seriously-considered theory suggests diverting nearby asteroids toward the planet, sending them crashing to the surface, which would generate heat from the friction of the collisions. That would take a lot of asteroids, and a lot of energy to move those asteroids. It would also take a long time.
Any heat generated by those collisions would be easily-lost surface heat. By the time you crashed the second asteroid, most of the heat generated by the collision of the first one would have long since dissipated into space.
It would take a very large, planet-destroying asteroid to generate any long-term heat.
The amounts of time and energy necessary to divert even one large object to the proper trajectory would easily rule out this option, as would the 100-million-year wait for the planet to cool back down enough to touch.
Another possible solution for warming the planet involves making the Martian surface darker, which would allow it to heat up by absorbing more solar energy. They would bring dust from Mars’ two moons—which, just by coincidence, are among the darkest bodies in the solar system—and spread it all over the planet. Seriously. Paint it black.
And just how do you get billions of tons of black three-quarter minus from Planet A to Planet B?
If you’ve ever watched the movie Alien you may remember that the spacecraft that hosted the story’s namesake monster was just such an interstellar dump truck. So…
A third proposal involves artificially building up the atmosphere on Mars with greenhouse gasses. That would allow the planet to warm ‘naturally’ from solar energy.
‘Greenhouse-gas generators’ have been suggested for that purpose. But what the hell is a greenhouse gas generator? On Earth, greenhouse gasses are generated in great volumes by burning fossil fuels, and as waste products from industry and other human activities. It sounds like an alchemist’s turn-lead-into-gold scheme.
And really, if we could do that, why don’t we just build ‘clean air generators’ here on Earth and save our own planet?
Regardless, carbon dioxide is one of the best greenhouse gasses around. The Martian atmosphere is already 95% carbon dioxide, and it isn’t keeping the planet warm. Other gasses, like methane and ammonia have been considered. Although they are much better greenhouse gasses, they are poisonous to us. That wasn’t enough to completely rule them out.
When life first appeared on Earth, our own atmosphere was largely methane, with very little oxygen. Among those first highly successful organisms, the blue-green algae breathed methane and gave off oxygen as a waste product. After a billion years, the methane in the atmosphere was slowly replaced by the waste oxygen, and the organisms evolved to breathe oxygen.
Our transformation of Mars will take long enough already. We’ll pass on the methane method, along with the billion-year wait.
Warming an entire planet is a huge, probably insurmountable hurdle, but without accomplishing that, we cannot go further. Let’s bypass the inevitable dead end, and just assume scientists have figured out how to warm the planet relatively quickly, and in the process, overcome another probable dead end by beginning to build a livable atmosphere.
After many thousands of years, once there is enough heat, and a much bigger atmosphere to help hold that heat and provide minimum protection from the solar radiation, scientists would introduce lichens and mosses. The lichens and mosses here on Earth are among the only things that can live at extreme latitudes and elevations, where it is always cold and the air is thin, much like on Mars. It is thought that these primitive plants might be able to survive the harsh conditions, and actually thrive.
Of course, they would need to add water. Perhaps there is enough frozen water near the surface of Mars that would be thawed and freed with the warming. We know water is there. We just don’t know how much water, nor do we know how accessible and usable it is. Until we know, and develop a dependable supply, it would need to come from Earth, and Earth does not have enough water to supply another world.
In fact, there are people right here on our own planet who do not have access to clean drinking water. We can’t figure out a way to take it a hundred miles to those in need, but we can somehow justify taking it a hundred million miles away from those people, for what amounts to an extravagant experiment. We will have to assume there is abundant, relatively pure water already available. Otherwise, our story stops here.
Besides water, our lichens’ survival depends upon Mars having enough of the proper minerals to feed them. If the lichens survive, they will break down the minerals, and produce soil for the primitive plants that would be introduced later. If it works at all, it will take many thousands of years.
Those first plants would breathe the plentiful Martian carbon dioxide, and give off oxygen, a necessary ingredient for our new atmosphere. There is a lot of work for those plants to do, and they work and grow very slowly. There is a lot less sunlight on Mars too, and that will slow them down further.
Thousands of years after their introduction, in the new, thin soil created—hopefully—by our first lichens and primitive plants, we take the next step and introduce hardy tundra grasses. Those grasses should speed up both soil and oxygen production. And after many more centuries of soil building, pine trees and other primitive tree and shrub species would be planted. All these plants should generate more oxygen to add to the growing atmosphere.
After a hundred thousand years, if all goes well, scientists think they could create a temperate equatorial belt around Mars that could comfortably support human life. A hundred thousand years of intense work and unimaginable cost have now been invested to create an environment that is already doomed.
It would take a constant, massive effort to maintain that delicate, precarious ecosystem. It will always have a tendency to degenerate for the same reasons it did in the first place, billions of years ago. There is no reason to believe that it could be self-sustaining this time around. There is still just surface heat, mostly trapped and sustained by the artificial atmosphere. But there is no planetary magnetic field protecting that atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. And without a magnetic field, that precarious atmosphere is the only shield from the deadly solar radiation.
If we use the proliferation of greenhouse gasses to hasten the process of terraforming, and if it does begin trapping and storing energy from the sun, how do we stop that process when it has progressed to the level we require? We can’t stop that runaway train here on our own planet. That’s one of the reasons we are looking at Mars as a life raft in the first place. Our brand new, highly expensive life raft already has a leak.
It’s all science fiction anyway. There is no real reason to even try. The obstacles are, at this point in our history, insurmountable. And a hundred thousand years—an extremely optimistic estimate—is a long time. Will our needs even be the same by then?
Will we even be the same? We may already be evolving to exist in the polluted mess we are creating for ourselves here on Earth. Blue-green algae did it.
Scientists seem determined to forge ahead with plans to alter Mars. What could go wrong?
The history of science is filled with examples of our tampering with Mother Nature that backfired.
Terraforming is a huge gamble. We can’t just assume that things will go our way. With every change we make to the Martian environment, there are endless possible futures. We are banking on one very narrow, specific outcome. Spit in the ocean and hope a treasure chest washes ashore.
We should at least consider the fact that we are not as smart as we think we are. There is abundant evidence of that.
When the first explorers began visiting Hawaii, rats accompanied them as stowaways on their ships. Rats quickly proliferated and they became a huge problem on the islands. Mongooses eat rats, among other things, so they were introduced to the islands in great numbers to control the rats.
Problem solved? Not so fast. There are always things we fail to consider.
It turns out that mongooses are daytime creatures, and rats are active at night. Rats were safe at home sleeping—and breeding— when mongooses were out hunting for food. To this day, a mongoose has never encountered a rat in Hawaii. To survive, the introduced mongooses began eating the ‘other things.’ Among those other things were Hawaii’s native birds, and the results were disastrous.
Today, Hawaii has more rats, more mongooses, and fewer birds. Nearly 150 years later, the catastrophic damage continues, and cannot be reversed.
Similar, and worse, scenarios are common throughout history. In fact, we have a pretty consistent track record of utter failure when pitting Mother Nature against herself. She always bites back.
And we do not learn.
In the Terraforming Mars scheme, we are counting on that first moss to alter the Martian environment so it will be more like Earth’s. But at the same, we expect that moss, in its effort to survive, to evolve into something more tolerant of the current conditions on Mars. Evolution doesn’t work that way.
So at the onset, it seems like an impossible undertaking, one objective at odds with the other, and at best it could take thousands of years before we have the slightest evidence of possible success.
Sprinkle some moss seeds on the shady side of a Martian mountain and cross your fingers. For a thousand years.
I won’t be around then, but I can speculate: The moss thrived, but took its own evolutionary path, you know, the way evolution actually works. Perhaps it’s no surprise that it did not evolve to be pro-Earth.
Through our let’s-play-God pompousness, we created our own invaders from Mars. One day you’re feeding your fern, the next day you’re on the menu. And that’s just the fern. What else evolved that might be hiding under a Martian rock, ready to pounce?
Our short-sightedness will have fulfilled the science fiction prophesy and created the Angry Red Planet!
But if there were a good reason to transform Mars into something that better suits our fancy, and we could do it, should we? We are destroying our own planet at an alarming rate, and we cannot seem to marshal the support of its own inhabitants to save it. It may soon be too late to save Earth. Can we ethically even consider planning the deliberate destruction of another world?
Is ethics even an issue? How big does a rock need to be before, ethically, you can’t just smash it into little pieces if you want to?
Is there a potential reward that is worth the investment of trillions of dollars? Actually, over the immense timeline of the grand ‘experiment,’ over those thousands of years of inflation, trillions could turn to quadrillions…even quintillions!
Another factor involving the lengthy time span is the many, many future generations of people who would need to stay on board for continuing the experiment. This isn’t a project where you just add water, sit back and wait. It’s a huge commitment for thousands of future generations. The process is so slow, there will be no observable progress during anyone’s lifetime. It is hard to maintain support for something you can’t see. You think watching paint dry is boring?
If you consider where we were a thousand years ago—socially, economically, scientifically, ecologically — it is staggering how we have advanced. And most of that advancement occurred in the last two hundred years.
What will the next two hundred years bring?
Almost certainly, it will bring shame. Earth’s future generations will condemn their ancestors for their failure to be good stewards of our own planet’s wellbeing. Do we want to add to their shame by destroying another planet?
Do we want our descendants looking up into the night sky through their telescope app on their iPhone 6600, and asking, “What’s wrong with Mars?” The answer of course will be, “Oh, those troglodytes in the 21st century did that.”
There are many more ways for a terraforming experiment to go wrong than right. There are too many to list even the ones we know about. How many more ways are there to fail spectacularly that no one has thought of?
You have to think of every possibility, no matter how unlikely it seems. Here’s one they probably have not even considered.
In their search for extraterrestrial life, scientists are scanning the cosmos for planets in the habitable zone, or the “Goldilocks Zone.” These are planets whose orbits around their stars are close enough so it's not too cold, and far enough so it's not too hot for liquid water to exist. According to astrobiologists, that makes it more likely that life may have had a genesis there.
Mars is considered to be in our solar system’s Goldilocks Zone. Scientists think it may have harbored life in the past. Unfortunately, ever optimistic, they never consider the end of the fairy tale. In the original story, it did not end well for Goldilocks.
Let’s say we have established a small colony on Mars. Now imagine that Mars’ native inhabitants have been away on a vacation to another galaxy, and now they come home? It seems to us like they’ve been gone for hundreds of years. To them it seems like three long weeks. They’re tired, and just want to get home and sleep in their own beds. Your property has not been abandoned when you go on vacation, regardless of how long it’s been.
If you find an uninhabited house in your neighborhood—no furniture and no residents—can you just move in and begin a complete remodel?
I don’t want to be anywhere near that planet when the Martians come home. If you’re going to base your whole scientific methodology on a fairy tale, perhaps you should at least read to the end for a portent. And not a modern, sanitized version of the story. Read one of the originals from a couple centuries ago.There is absolutely no evidence that life ever existed on Mars, and it probably could not now support life as we know it. But if life did have its own genesis there, would it be like life on Earth? Would it even be recognizable to us as life? Has the Mars rover already driven over indigenous life forms and concluded, ‘nothing here?’
Life in some form possibly could exist there in the present conditions. Don’t we owe Mars, and ourselves, the benefit of the doubt to tread lightly until we know for certain? There is much to be learned from going to Mars, and perhaps having a small colony of scientists there, but we should not be making plans to alter it in any way. If we ever do travel there, we need to do everything possible to protect it.
There is a real possibility that it may already be too late. Just traveling to Mars for a visit will likely contaminate it beyond salvation. We do sterilize spacecraft and hardware, but that’s not a 100% assurance. What was lurking in the seams and crevices of the probes, landers and rovers we have already sent there? Even worse for us, what will stow away on any trips back to Earth?
Humans cannot be sterilized as effectively as hardware. Every person alive is dripping with an menacing menagerie of microbes: bacteria, viruses, and other microscopic life forms. Those microbes are necessary for our existence. But as soon as the first person touches Mars, or just breathes on it, it becomes infected, and any microbes that manage to survive will begin to evolve. And as we have seen, we have no control over what paths that evolution takes. If it evolves teeth, it will bite us in the ass.
We are definitely going to Mars, and without asking anyone, we will dig holes, poop in them, and plant flowers in the poop.
How did we get to this point in our history where we assume that whatever we want is ours for the taking? If someone owns it, we steal it. If someone already lives there, we push them out or enslave them, or just kill them.
It sounds all too familiar. The history of mankind suggests we were always that way.
The earliest of what scientists consider to be ‘modern’ humans appeared on Earth about 200,000 years ago. They started leaving Africa, the cradle of mankind, about 65,000 years ago. 15,000 years later, they had reached Europe, Asia and Australia.
Within the next 30,000 years, they had migrated into the western hemisphere and successfully infested the entire planet. There were small bands of hunter-gatherers in virtually every nook and cranny of the world. They had adapted to not only survive, but thrive in many climates and environments. Their intelligence was growing, but there were still no real civilizations. The largest groups numbered probably only a few hundred people.
Large civilizations appeared about 5,000 years ago, and true exploration began only about a thousand years ago. It was another 500 years before Christopher Columbus sailed to the New World, and soon we were traveling around the globe, before we even knew it was a globe.
It seems to be human nature to travel, explore, conquer, exploit…destroy. It’s what we do. We have conquered our planet. We are well on our way to destroying it.
We have traveled to the moon, and claimed it for humanity. It orbits the earth and we planted our flag there so it is ours, right? Is it really that much different from sailing across an ocean to a new continent?
After all the melodrama, that is the point. We have not yet sailed across that ocean; we haven’t even been there. No human being has ever set foot on Mars. We are actually making plans to destroy a world we have never even visited.
We have been studying our own planet for thousands of years, and there are still surprising discoveries being made. And we are right here, every day, touching and feeling.
Countless billions of people over thousands of years, hundreds of thousands of scientists among them, have lived on this planet, and we still are not even close to knowing all of Earth’s secrets.Human hands in Martian dirt is the only way we will ever begin to learn the mysteries of Mars. We need see it, feel it, taste it and smell it. But we need to protect its natural state. Protect it from us.
It could take hundreds of years before we know just some of the basics about Mars’ delicate ecosystem. But it needs to be studied in its own natural habitat.
If we think we have the knowledge and money to make a dead planet livable, why not use that knowledge and money to help sustain our own planet’s livability? Why not save Earth from our destructive practices? We know it is a good home.
Why invest in the destruction of another world? That project would be infinitely more expensive, take hundreds of thousands of years, and ultimately would not be sustainable anyway.
Hopefully some day we can travel to Mars and enjoy the pristine natural beauty of another world, and not one that we destroyed for our own selfish reasons.
I do not want to visit an Angry Red Planet. And no one wants anything from an Angry Red Planet coming to visit us.
Scott Wright © 2016